Researchers have for the first time measured the first ionization energy of lawrencium, the last of the actinides, validating predictions of the element’s electronic structure (Nature 2015, DOI: ...

The process behind this low-energy ionization is known as 'optical tunnelling', and was first discussed by Keldysh 1. It is described mathematically using quantum mechanical equations derived from ...

Six critical steps are involved in the manufacturing of semiconductors. These steps include deposition, photoresist, lithography, etch, ionization and packaging. This article discusses several ...